Through the Eyes of Travellers

The One Thing

Traveller accounts from the tenth to seventeenth centuries provide important evidence about Indian political, economic, social and cultural life, but they are shaped by each observer’s purpose, background and assumptions. Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and François Bernier therefore offer valuable yet partial perspectives that must be compared critically with other sources.

Chronology

Who and What

• Al-Biruni: A scholar from Khwarizm who came to the Indian subcontinent in the eleventh century. He studied Indian society, religion, philosophy, science and customs. His account is valuable for understanding learned traditions but is limited by its reliance on Sanskrit texts and educated Brahmanical perspectives.

• Kitab-ul-Hind: Al-Biruni’s detailed study of India, written in Arabic. It examined Indian beliefs, social practices, knowledge systems and geography, including philosophy, religion, astronomy, mathematics, geography and social organisation.

• Al-Biruni’s comparative method: A method of explaining Indian beliefs and practices by comparing them with those of other cultures, particularly Islamic traditions. Al-Biruni learned Sanskrit and consulted Indian texts, but language differences, religious beliefs, social separation and intellectual traditions remained barriers to communication.

• Ibn Battuta: A Moroccan traveller born in Tangier in 1304. He reached Delhi in 1333, served as a judge under Muhammad bin Tughlaq and recorded observations on cities, roads, administration, communication, markets, people and customs.

• Rihla: Ibn Battuta’s travel account. It describes Delhi as large, populous and prosperous, while also recording political instability, punishments and dangers on the roads. It praises the postal system, which used horse-riders and runners to carry news and official messages over long distances.

• François Bernier: A French physician and traveller who visited Mughal India between 1656 and 1668. His association with members of the Mughal court and nobility influenced the information he received and the social groups he observed.

• Caste system: A social system involving hereditary groups, ranked status and rules concerning occupation, marriage and social interaction. Al-Biruni discussed caste and the idea of social pollution, but his account did not fully represent the experiences of all social groups.

• Cultural translation: The process of explaining unfamiliar customs and institutions through concepts and language familiar to the observer’s own society. This process could clarify unfamiliar practices but could also distort them.

• Urban society: The social and economic life of towns and cities, including markets, craftspeople, merchants, officials, religious institutions and entertainment. Ibn Battuta described markets as centres of trade, production, social interaction and entertainment, including the sale of slaves and the presence of female performers.

• Travelling communities: Groups such as merchants, pilgrims, soldiers, entertainers and artisans who moved between regions and connected different parts of the subcontinent. Ibn Battuta’s descriptions show that Indian cities were linked to long-distance trade networks and included merchants, artisans, officials, scholars and religious figures.

• European comparison: Bernier’s tendency to compare Mughal India with European societies, especially concerning landownership, taxation, cities and economic development. His comparisons reflected European assumptions rather than an entirely objective account.

• Critical reading of sources: The examination of an account’s purpose, audience, language, social position, omissions and possible prejudices before accepting its claims. Traveller accounts should be compared with inscriptions, coins, administrative records, literary works, archaeological evidence and other observers.

Causes and Consequences

• Al-Biruni’s scholarly purpose led him to study Indian knowledge systems.

His interest in Indian philosophy, religion, astronomy, mathematics and geography resulted in the Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic. Because he learned Sanskrit and consulted Indian texts, his account provides detailed evidence about learned traditions.

• Al-Biruni’s reliance on learned Brahmanical groups limited the social range of his account.

His descriptions of the caste system and social pollution are significant, but they do not fully represent all social groups. His account must therefore be distinguished from a complete description of Indian society.

• Language, religion, social separation and intellectual traditions created barriers between Al-Biruni and the people he studied.

These barriers encouraged the use of comparative explanation and cultural translation. They also created the risk that Indian practices would be interpreted through Islamic or other external concepts.

• Ibn Battuta’s position as a judge under Muhammad bin Tughlaq gave him access to official and urban life.

His Rihla consequently contains evidence about Delhi, administration, court life, roads, markets and communication systems. However, his interest in unusual and dramatic events may have influenced his descriptions.

• The organisation of communication networks supported the administration of distant territories.

Ibn Battuta described a postal system using horse-riders and runners to carry news and official messages over long distances. This demonstrates the importance of mobility and communication to political authority.

• Urban markets connected economic production with social and cultural life.

Ibn Battuta presented markets as places of trade, craft production, social interaction and entertainment. His observations also include the sale of slaves and the presence of female performers, showing that markets contained varied and unequal social activities.

• Long-distance trade and travelling communities connected Indian cities and regions.

Merchants, pilgrims, soldiers, entertainers and artisans moved between regions, while cities contained merchants, artisans, officials, scholars and religious figures. This evidence challenges any view of urban society as isolated or economically uniform.

• Bernier’s association with the Mughal court and nobility shaped his account of Mughal India.

He focused on political authority, ruling classes, cities, economic arrangements and social inequality. His access gave him valuable information but also exposed him primarily to elite perspectives.

• Bernier’s European comparisons produced a critical argument about landownership and economic development.

He argued that the absence of private landownership among peasants and nobles weakened agriculture and economic progress. Historians have questioned this claim because Mughal land rights and revenue arrangements were more complex, and because the argument was influenced by European ideas.

• Bernier’s interpretation of cities emphasised their dependence on the royal court.

He suggested that many towns declined when the court moved. Historians consider this view exaggerated, since urban economic life was not necessarily determined solely by the location of the court.

• Traveller accounts reflect the writer’s purpose, education, social position, religious beliefs and expectations.

Accounts written for rulers, patrons or European readers might emphasise unusual customs, wealth, violence or cultural differences to interest their audiences. Direct observation, hearsay, interpretation and comparison must therefore be distinguished.

• The selective nature of travel narratives affects what they can prove.

The absence of a group or practice from a traveller’s account does not prove that it did not exist. Stronger historical conclusions emerge when traveller accounts are compared with inscriptions, coins, administrative records, literary works, archaeological evidence and accounts by other observers.

What Gets Asked

• Compare Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and François Bernier in terms of their background, purpose, methods and subjects of observation.
• Explain the value and limitations of Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind, including his use of Sanskrit texts, comparative method and reliance on learned Brahmanical groups.
• Assess what Ibn Battuta’s Rihla reveals about Delhi, urban society, markets, postal communication, long-distance trade and travelling communities.
• Evaluate Bernier’s comparison of Mughal India with Europe, particularly his claims about private landownership, taxation, agriculture, economic development and court-centred cities.
• Explain how cultural translation, religious assumptions, social position and intended audience shaped traveller accounts.
• Discuss why traveller narratives must be read critically and compared with inscriptions, coins, administrative records, literary works, archaeological evidence and other observers.