Change and Development in Rural Society

The One Thing

Rural Indian society has been transformed by land reforms, the Green Revolution, migration and globalisation. These developments increased production and created new opportunities, but their benefits remained uneven because land, technology, markets and political power are unequally distributed.

Who and What

• Agrarian structure: The pattern of land ownership, land control, cultivation, tenancy, agricultural labour and relationships among rural classes and castes.
• Landlord: A person or institution that owns or controls agricultural land and may receive rent from cultivators.
• Tenant cultivator: A person who cultivates land owned by someone else in return for rent, a share of produce or another payment.
• Agricultural labourer: A person who works on another person’s farm for wages and generally owns insufficient land to support the household.
• Land reforms: Government measures intended to change rural land relations, reduce exploitation and improve the position of cultivators.
• Abolition of intermediaries: The removal of systems in which intermediaries collected rent from cultivators on behalf of the state or rulers.
• Tenancy reform: Legal protection for tenants through regulation of rent, security of tenure and, in some cases, rights to purchase the land they cultivate.
• Land ceiling: A legal limit on the amount of agricultural land that an individual or household may own, with surplus land intended for redistribution.
• Land consolidation: The merging of scattered plots into larger, more manageable holdings.
• Green Revolution: The spread of high-yielding variety seeds, irrigation, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, machinery and improved farming practices to increase crop production.
• High-yielding variety seeds: Improved seeds capable of producing greater output when supplied with adequate water, fertilisers and other inputs.
• Commercialisation of agriculture: The shift from production mainly for household consumption towards production for sale in markets.
• Differentiation of the peasantry: The division of cultivators into rich, middle and poor peasants because of unequal land, capital, technology and market access.
• Rural class structure: The division of rural society into landlords, rich peasants, middle peasants, marginal farmers, tenants and landless labourers.
• Caste-class relationship: The interaction between caste and economic position in relation to land ownership, occupation, status and access to power.
• Labour circulation: The repeated movement of workers between villages and towns, or between regions, in response to seasonal or changing employment opportunities.
• Seasonal migration: Temporary movement for work during periods when employment is unavailable in the home village, often followed by return after the agricultural season.
• Distress migration: Migration caused by poverty, debt, crop failure, unemployment, displacement or the absence of a secure livelihood.
• Globalisation: The increasing integration of rural production, markets, labour and consumption with national and international economic processes.
• Contract farming: An arrangement in which farmers produce crops for a company under agreed conditions concerning quality, quantity, price or inputs.
• Agrarian crisis: A condition involving falling or uncertain farm incomes, rising input costs, debt, inadequate support and insecurity among farmers and labourers.
• Rural non-farm economy: Economic activity outside cultivation, including transport, construction, petty trade, manufacturing, services and government employment.

Causes and Consequences

• Unequal land ownership shaped rural power. Land ownership provided not only economic income but also social status, political authority and control over rural labour. This produced a rural class structure comprising landlords, rich peasants, middle peasants, marginal farmers, tenants and landless labourers, while caste-class relationships influenced access to land, occupations and power.

• After Independence, land reforms sought to alter rural land relations. These reforms included the abolition of intermediaries, tenancy reform, land ceilings, land consolidation and the redistribution of surplus land. Their intended consequences were to reduce exploitation, strengthen the position of cultivators and lessen inequality.

• The implementation of land reforms varied among Indian states. Because the Constitution placed land-related matters largely within the State List, states differed in their laws and administrative effectiveness. Weak implementation, legal loopholes, political resistance, inaccurate land records and the transfer of land to relatives or benami holders limited the redistribution of land.

• The Green Revolution began in India during the mid-1960s. It initially expanded mainly in areas with assured irrigation, including parts of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. High-yielding variety seeds were used with irrigation, fertilisers, pesticides, credit, electricity, machinery, roads, storage and access to markets.

• The Green Revolution increased food-grain production, particularly wheat and rice. This helped India move towards greater food security. It also encouraged the commercialisation of agriculture by linking production more closely to markets and input suppliers.

• Productivity gains did not produce social equality automatically. Larger farmers were generally better able to afford improved seeds, machinery and other expensive inputs. Consequently, the Green Revolution contributed to the differentiation of the peasantry and strengthened class differences between farmers with unequal access to capital and technology.

• Regional inequality increased because the Green Revolution depended on infrastructure. Regions with reliable irrigation, electricity, roads, storage and market access gained more than rain-fed regions. The effects of rural change therefore differed by region, landholding size, irrigation access and connection to markets.

• Mechanisation increased productivity but could reduce demand for some forms of labour. Machinery may reduce the need for agricultural labour during harvesting and ploughing. Agricultural labourers consequently continued to face low wages, irregular employment, seasonal unemployment, debt and weak bargaining power.

• The Green Revolution also generated environmental costs. Intensive cultivation contributed to soil degradation, excessive groundwater use, chemical pollution and loss of crop diversity. Thus, increased production involved environmental pressures that became part of the wider agrarian crisis.

• Labour circulation connected rural households to wider labour markets. Workers migrated between villages, towns and regions for employment in construction, factories, transport, domestic service, plantations and other farms. Such migration can provide remittances and diversify household income, but migrants may experience insecure work, poor housing, low wages and limited social protection.

• Migration reflects both livelihood strategy and structural insecurity. Seasonal migration allows households to respond to periods of limited agricultural employment, while distress migration results from poverty, debt, crop failure, unemployment, displacement or the lack of secure local livelihoods. Migration should therefore not be understood solely as evidence of rural decline.

• Globalisation expanded rural connections with national and international markets. New crops, food-processing industries, export markets and rural services may create opportunities. At the same time, farmers may face price fluctuations, corporate control and global competition.

• Contract farming illustrates the mixed effects of globalisation. It may provide assured buyers and technical support, but farmers can become dependent on companies and face strict quality requirements or disputes over prices.

• The rural non-farm economy has become increasingly important. Rural households are connected to towns and cities through markets, education, transport, communication, remittances and non-farm employment. Activities such as construction, petty trade, manufacturing, transport and services provide alternatives to cultivation.

• Rural change remains uneven. Its effects differ according to caste, class, gender, region, landholding size, irrigation access and connection to markets. Sustainable rural development therefore requires productive agriculture, secure land rights, fair wages, employment diversification, public services, environmental protection and the inclusion of women and disadvantaged communities.

What Gets Asked

• How did land reforms attempt to change the relationships among landlords, tenant cultivators and agricultural labourers?
• Why did the implementation and success of land reforms vary among Indian states?
• Compare the effects of the Green Revolution on agricultural production, food security, class inequality and regional inequality.
• Explain why Green Revolution technology required complementary inputs such as irrigation, fertilisers, pesticides, credit, electricity, machinery, roads, storage and market access.
• Assess whether migration should be understood as a sign of rural decline or as part of rural livelihood strategies.
• Evaluate the opportunities and risks created by globalisation and contract farming for different rural social groups.